Charlotte LR Payne
Charlotte LR Payne
  • About
  • Research
    • Traditional entomophagy in Japan >
      • An overview
      • Wild foraging and food insecurity
      • Imported insects compensate for a decline in wild foraging
    • The ‘semi domestication’ of wasps for use as food in contemporary Japan >
      • What can we learn from insect 'semi-domestication'?
    • Public health and edible insects
    • Wild and semi-wild harvesting in Zimbabwe
    • Wild harvesting in DRC
    • Gender roles in insect foraging and management
    • Edible insects in San Antonio Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexico
  • Publications
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  • 日本語

Very hungry FOR caterpillars? On edible insects and food security

4/21/2018

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Yesterday was our departmental seminar. I presented a poster, and I chose to focus on one of the chapters of my thesis: caterpillars and food security.

This matters a great deal to me because it's one of the most important concerns for the people I work with in Burkina Faso.

Although, when I say 'food security' I think I probably mean 'financial security', and I believe it's crucial to realise what this really means and the the toll that it takes. As far as I understand from the people I've spoken to and shared my life with during fieldwork - It's not just about hunger. It's about the anxiety that comes from having to decide whether to send your child to school or get them to work in the fields so you have a better harvest next year. It's about the exhaustion of having to walk several kilometres to a mill laden with grain, and walk back with your milled grain, collecting dry wood as you go, to light the fire over which you'll cook the day's meal. It's about the resignation you feel when you decide that yes, you'll use agrochemicals, because then you know you'll get a good harvest this year - even though you've been told by friends that the soils will suffer as a result and your harvests will get poorer and poorer.

Anyway! Let's set this - and the topic of caterpillars and food security - in a broader context:
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The image above sets the background to our study.

​We chose a mixed methods approach to this question, and here's a summary of those methods:
​

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​The results are being prepared for submission for peer-reviewed publication, so I wont include them in full here. But, here are our main findings:

  1. During caterpillar season, people collect and eat a lot of caterpillars!
  2. Overall protein consumption is significantly higher during caterpillar season
  3. During caterpillar season, women perceive their households to be more food secure

Exciting stuff! And we've more data to analyse, so there's more to come...based on the above findings and the data that support them, we came to the following conclusion:

   People in this region look forward to caterpillar season as a time of relative prosperity.       
   Caterpillars are widely appreciated as food: many say that caterpillars are their ‘favourite meat’.

   We found that caterpillars make a significant seasonal contribution to food security among
   women in rural southwestern Burkina Faso, both as a source of income and a source of food.

   We hope that in fostering a greater understanding of the caterpillars – their importance to people,
   their place in the diet, their ecology and their impact on the wider ecosystem – this research
   project will support those who collect, eat and sell them. 


I hope this has been an interesting read and please do be in touch if you've any questions or comments. Finally and importantly, a huge thank you to all who helped with this project (below - and I must add: all credit to Eric Carle for the beautiful illustrations, taken straight from The Very Hungry Caterpillar), and, of course, the references cited!

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Edible caterpillars are brilliant & important & so are the people who collect them

4/11/2018

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The title of this post is a summary of a talk I’m giving today! It's a departmental seminar day, so I'm presenting some results from one chapter of my thesis. (The actual title is "Effects of defoliation by the edible caterpillar Cirina butyrospermi on yields of maize and shea" but I don't think that's quite as catchy.)
 
Here’s an edited version of the talk, which covers a bit of my fieldwork in the past two years:

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This is what we want to do - to feed the world sustainably
 
Of all the people i know, I’m on the naive and optimistic end of the spectrum, but even i cant look at this image without dying a little inside.
 
Because this is the exact opposite of what we’re doing.
 
The current global food system is overrun with problems. Our growing population and growing demand for protein are fuelling widespread environmental degradation and species extinction, public health epidemics such as malnutrition, obesity and heart disease, and exacerbating economic inequality between producers and consumers.
 
So how does conservation fit into this context? We want food - and we want to save wild species. How can we best do this?
 
There are many ideas out there, but the one that inspired me to do this research was that of edible insects. Insects, we’re told, have a low environmental footprint, are nutrient rich, and are a highly valued resource currently controlled by some of the world’s poorest people.
 
Some edible insects are wild-harvested, some are farmed. Yet others are present in existing agricultural systems - and are harvested as a by product.
 
I felt like these by-product insects were particularly interesting - we’ve sort of been semi farming them for thousands of years, because we’ve been propagating their food source across large areas of land. We’re living in an era of accelerating agricultural intensification and the disintegration of traditional food cultures - what does this mean for semi-farmed edible insects?
 

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I chose to do my fieldwork in Burkina Faso, West Africa, because this is a country in which many of the problems facing the global food system are really acute - widespread destruction of habitat to clear land for agriculture, prevalent malnutrition among those who produce the food. Also, they have one particular edible insect that really intrigued me!
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As the satellite image above shows (thank you Google maps), the agricultural fields in Burkina Faso are filled with trees, and the vast majority of the trees are shea trees. Shea trees produce nuts that can be ground and churned to make shea butter, a product that’s used in cosmetics and confectionary worldwide. The nuts fetch high prices at market and it’s Burkina Faso’s third biggest export crop. It’s been called ‘women’s gold’, because the shea nuts are traditionally a crop that is harvested by women.
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The most dominant crop that’s grown in the fields is maize, which is the dietary staple in the region. Men are traditionally responsible for the maize crop, although in practice both women and children often contribute a lot of the physical labour.
 
So, the agricultural system in southwestern Burkina Faso can be most accurately described as maize- and shea-dominant agroforestry. 

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The reason for my excitement when i first heard about this potential study system was the insect that eats the leaves of the shea tree. It’s an edible caterpillar, collected in large numbers (as you can see from the above photo) and sold in huge quantities at markets.
 
African edible caterpillars are delicious, fascinating creatures. Many of them are highly seasonal, but very abundant when in season. However, the vast majority are only found in forest environments. This was the first time i’d ever heard of an agricultural system that had edible caterpillars. Looking into it, i found papers that referred to the caterpillar as a ‘pest’ of shea. i had endless unanswered questions, and decided a pilot trip would be necessary to try and understand which of my questions would be most relevant to those living in the region.

Methods

Farmer interviews & consultations

In 2016 I spent a couple of weeks visiting villages and interviewing men and women whose primary income source was smallholder farming. I consulted them about their priorities, and it was clear that one of the most important questions to people here was: what are effects of defoliation by caterpillars on yields of shea and maize? 
 
I decided to ask this as the driving research question for one of the chapters of my thesis.
 
Following pilot interviews, I randomly selected a sample of 45 households, stratified by household size, all of whom owned at least 1ha of maize. I selected three shea trees in each field - also stratified by size. I did approx 14 months of fieldwork in 2016-17.

Field data collection

In 2016 I collected observational data on shea tree defoliation and the growth of maize plants under and outside of tree canopies. In 2017 I repeated this data collection and also collected data on the abundance of shea nuts and the weight of maize cobs relative to plant height.
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Field experiment
In 2017, in collaboration with two farmers, I conducted a field experiment: we planted two rows of maize (30 plants each row) and applied caterpillar faeces as fertiliser to one of the rows. We then measured the growth of each plant and weighed the eventual harvested cobs.

 

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The image above shows a typical landscape in the midst of caterpillar season. All the trees are shea trees - but some look like they're dying. They're not dying! They've just been stripped of their leaves by a lot of very hungry caterpillars..

Results

The results of observations and experiments have been surprising, and as ever, I wish I had another year or so to collect more data!
 
I can’t publish the graphs that accompanied here because they’re being submitted for peer review, but here’s a summary of my results:
  1. There was no significant relationship between the extent of shea defoliation and the abundance of shea nuts on trees the following year. Given the extent of defoliation, this is really surprising.
  2. in 2016 there was less difference in maize height underneath trees with more defoliation, suggesting that defoliation does help crop growth. However, the same trend was not observed in 2017.
  3. Plants that are fertilised with caterpillar faeces grow taller - there's a significant height difference from Day 50 onwards - but there was no significant difference in maize cob weight.

What does this mean?

Overall, my first conclusion is that caterpillars aren’t a ‘pest’ in the conventional sense – and what I mean by this is that there is no evidence that they cause any harm to yields of either shea or maize.

Secondly, it looks like defoliation by caterpillars may assist maize growth, probably due to light and/or fertilization of the soil by caterpillar faeces - but more data is needed to verify this. 2016 may have been a false positive; 2017 may have been a false negative.

Finally, the field experiment results do suggest that there may be a positive impact of caterpillar faeces on maize productivity – but again, more data is needed.



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So, let’s return to the first image, & the problem that made me start this study. 

I think I can say something new about this now, for what it's worth:


         In West Africa, edible caterpillars aren’t a pest insect.

         They might even help fertilize the soil that produces the staple crop.

       In order to build a more sustainable food system we need to do more research, and when we do so, we need to listen to the farmers to whom this matters most.

Thank you for reading! And thanks to those who made this study possible:

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Can eating insects really reduce our ecological footprint and save wild species?

4/6/2018

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I was asked by The Ecological Citizen to write an opinion piece answering this very question. And I was really excited to do so.

Why? Because it's an important, complex question, and like all good questions, there are no easy answers. It's also an exciting journal to write for - new, peer-reviewed, and established in the hope of being "a catalyst for radical, egalitarian, compassionate, unifying change".

And with a limit of 500 words and just five references, I knew it'd be a challenge - and a useful exercise in really thinking it through.

Here's the article. And here's the conclusion I came to (paraphrased):
  • Yes, insects are potentially more ecologically sustainable* than other animal protein (beef, lamb, poultry, fish etc). 
  • But to realize this potential, we need legislation and policy that prioritize reduced ecological impact (e.g. through the use of food waste as feed, the preservation of habitat, and the regeneration of wild nature in reclaimed land)
  • For now, I think that a plant-based diet – perhaps with the occasional insect- or poultry-based treat – remains the most ecologically sustainable* choice.
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*A note on sustainability: This article focused on ecological sustainability. For broader sustainability in the food system, we also need to think about how to combat structural inequality, empower producers, improve animal welfare and control antibiotic use.
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An article for the Independent - and a list of great blogs!

3/22/2018

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I wrote an article for the Independent, all about whether giving up meat and eating insects might save the world... here it is, please do take a look.
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I also submitted a list of blogs as part of the article, but the didn't make the cut...so here they are!

If you're keen to read more about edible insects, please check these out (& let me know if I've missed any):

Bugburger – Tech Stack Manager Anders Engström on the rise of edible insects in Sweden and worldwide (Swedish/English)

Bugible – Entrepreneur Aly Moore on edible insect products and events in North America

Bugsolutely - Bugsolutely founder Massimo Reverberi on edible insect news worldwide

EntomoCentral - Media correspondent Justin Butner writes about all things edible insects, including a new series of posts titles 'Edible Insect Experts on...'

Entomology Anthropology - Anthropologist Dr Julie Lesnik on edible insects and human evolution

Entomove - Insect marketing manager and consultant Florian Nock on edible insects, farming and nutrition
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EntoNation - More a comprehensive website than a blog, EntoNation also features a newsletter and podcast on edible insects. Check it out for articles on farming, cooking, thinking about - and enjoying! - insects as food.

EVO Conversion Systems LLC - Company EVO Conversion Systems on black soldier flies and their ability to convert waste into protein.

Ilka Taponen – Process Development Manager Ilka Taponen on the emerging edible insect industry in Finland and the rest of Europe (Finnish/English)

Les Criquets Migrateurs - Chemist Annie Ruelle-Sanguine and Agronomist Sebastien Collin on their adventures eating insects around the world (French)

Marwa Shumo - Postdoctoral Fellow Marwa Shumo on her work on edible insects in Kenya and Germany

Slices of Blue Sky - Blogger and engineer Marc Rumminger on current topics in insects as food

The Future of Edible Insects – Incredible Foods brand owner Mark Nagy on the challenges faced by insect-eating entrepreneur

​The Insect Hunter - Food and Nutrition researcher John Kinyuru on his own experiences collecting and eating insects
 
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An eggciting discovery in Cambridge

3/18/2018

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​'Insects are a delicacy!' is a phrase I've heard a lot and said myself, but I can see why it might be hard to believe.

If your first and only taste of insects is something deep-fried or freeze-dried, you might well be skeptical.

So here's an example of a edible insect - hopefully available in a store near you - that just might change your mind.

First, a little background: This, below, is the view from my window. I'm writing up my PhD results, holed up in an inverted snowglobe (Cambridge), and fresh edible insects seem like a distant, inaccessible luxury.
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But a few days ago, everything changed. I went to my local Asian supermarket. As I was browsing and dreaming of warmth and miso, I spotted this on the shelves:
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​I'd never heard of Kai Mod Dang, but I know an insect dish when I see one! Served with sliced lime and pickles - what could they be? I turned the tin around and read with barely disguised glee: "RED ANT EGGS 25%, SALT WATER 75%'.

​OK, not great ratios, but 25% is more than 0%, and the price - 5.45GBP for 400g - felt like a bargain.

I bought a couple of tins, enjoyed the shop owner's reactions to my purchase ('You eat these? Good! These are good!'), and headed home.

I've only ever had Mexican ant eggs before - we sauteed them in a little butter and folded them in blue corn tortillas. Called 'escamoles', they were one of the most delicious insects I've ever eaten. But perhaps Thai ant eggs would be different?

​I turned to Twitter for help. Suddenly I had quite a few recipe ideas - I'd have to buy a few more tins!

That was a month ago, and I've only managed to try one of the suggestions so far. But it was definitely worth it. We had dinner guests, one of whom was our landlord, Geoffrey Roughton. I told him excitedly that I planned to cook ant eggs especially in his honour, and he did a very good job of showing his enthusiasm. He's very interested in insects as a potential alternative to meat, but he's always telling me that the key is in the preparation. I hoped that these ant eggs - and the recipes from my helpful Twitter friends - might just be flavoursome enough to win him over.

I drained the salt water off and we both sampled a tiny ant egg. Salty, creamy, and no discernible 'metallic' taste from being kept in a tin.

I sauteed them with a tiny scoop of plant-based 'butter'. Here's a photo:
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​They have eyes! Tiny black pinprick eyes. And some of them already have legs, too.

With wasp larvae in central Japan, the best quality selection would contain both larvae (no discernible ant/wasp form) and pupae (fully formed, but without a chitinous exoskeleton - like tiny white ghost versions of adult ants). They say this gives a more interesting texture and flavour. Perhaps the same is true of ants?

These ants certainly had a lot of both. They were a bit salty, but otherwise creamy, savoury and very moreish. Geoffrey sprinkled them liberally on his pasta, so I think he agreed. I'll definitely be trying them again, perhaps with another recipe next time.

​Meanwhile, if you're based in a climate that's very much lacking fresh insects right now, I recommend checking out the six-legged delicacies that your local Asian supermarket might have on offer!



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"Sophisticated & whimsical, elegant & messy"...

1/21/2018

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As the days got darker back in 2017, we decided to brighten things up a little with a slightly esoteric event - a sustainable insects and wine tasting evening!

The event was held at Trinity College, Cambridge, and tickets sold out fast.

Using sustainably harvested insects courtesy of a family business in Japan* we laid out a selection of canapes, each matched with a different pair of wines...


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For a description of the event and one person's reflections on tastes and pairings, see this fantastic blog post by Sioned Cox. Her description of the evening as "sophisticated & whimsical, elegant & messy" perfectly sums up the event and hopefully most of my life.

Here are some more details about the insects we used, and the canapes we prepared:
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The event was a collaboration between
Insects & Wine
Anthroenology
Cambridge Food Security Forum
Trinity College Wine Society

Tsukahara-chimni 

*admittedly the air miles involved are not so sustainable...but until we have certified producers sustainably harvesting delicious wild-caught insects closer to home, this is the option I'm leaning towards. Happy to discuss other options, though!
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Do insects actually taste any good?

1/20/2018

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I wrote an article for BBC World - a eulogy to insect-shaped insects. If that sounds like something you'd enjoy, please do take a look! 

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Finding a formula for optimism

1/4/2018

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I wrote a guest post on finding my own formula for optimism for the blog Academic Optimism, if interested you can read it here!
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2017: The year in edible insects!

12/28/2017

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For everyone who's been excited about edible insects this year - and that seems to be a lot of people - here are a few insect-related monthly highlights of 2017.

January

The year got off to a flying (/hopping/buzzing) start when edible insects were declared to be one of the key food trends forecasted for 2017, and just to drive the point home... 

February
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 ...Angelina Jolie did her bit for edible insect endorsement with these words of wisdom “The first thing I ate was crickets with beer and that’s when you can try tarantulas…They actually have a very good flavour” (But which, Angelina? Let's assume all three - crickets, tarantulas and beer alike.)

March
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BUGS the film was released for public consumption..It’s now available online for download or streaming, and is a visual and intellectual feast, with a good dose of humour thrown in. Get it here.
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Also in March
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This is the opposite of a highlight, and is instead a tribute to and acknowledgment of one of the wisest contributors to the edible insects movement: Alan Yen passed away. His commitment to environmental concerns, his attention to the socio-cultural significance of insects, and his thoughtful, inquiring and gentle nature, will be sorely missed. His obituary was published in the Journal of Insects as Food and Feed.

April​
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Fried grasshoppers (chapulines, Oaxaca-style, to the insect connoisseur) were a sell out snack at the Seattle Mariners’ new Safeco stadium.

May​
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The beautiful “On Eating Insects” was published by Phaidon - an exquisite travel journal and intricate recipe book from the Nordic Food Lab.

June​
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Protix - which breeds insects for use in animal feed - secured €45m worth of funding to expand operations, while in Shanghai a man ate over a kg of edible insects in under 5 minutes, winning a 24k gold bar for his efforts.

July

A new EU regulation permitting the use of insects in aquaculture feed came into effect.

August​
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Bug Grub Couple was first aired on BBC1: The inspirational Sarah Beynon (scientist) and Andy Holcroft (chef) unite their passions for insects and food with a scientific/culinary enterprise in Wales. If you haven’t seen it yet, it’s up on iPlayer for a few more days. 


Also in August 

The Swiss Coop launched its range of insect-based food, made by Essento.

Meanwhile in Western Australia a cricket farm - which feeds its crickets on “recycled food waste, fruit and vegetable scraps” - was given the go-ahead to start selling its insects as food.


September

Finland, Europe’s greatest consumer of coffee (coincidence? they do say coffee boosts brain function), became the fifth European country to allow the sale of edible insects in stores, leading to a flurry of Finnish insect products hitting the shelves, including

- Cricket bread by Fazer 
- ‘Patties, sausages and pasta’ by Mattila 
- Drone larvae by beekeepers 
All of which no doubt inspired the founding of Europe’s largest insect rearing plant in Finland, which will begin production in spring 2018.


Also in September

The 2-day INSECTA conference was held in Berlin
and
The 3-day Brooklyn Bugs meeting was held in New York

October
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Cricket Man launched Ento Nation, an ento-taining podcast that features interviews with different representatives of the insect-eating world, and always includes a recipe.


November

This isn't a highlight, but is very important for anyone concerned with insects - a study based on long-term data at protected sites in Germany showed that flying insect populations have dropped by 75% during the course of the past 27 yrs, for no apparent reason. Something about the modern world is doing more damage to the ecosystems around us than we had previously realised...

December ​​
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..but let's end this on a very positive note - after presenting at the Global Food Security conference in South Africa, the Global Orphan Foundation got a great deal of well-deserved coverage for its work, in partnership with Farms for Orphans, training Congolese orphanages in insect-rearing so that they have access to a reliable source of protein.

With our collective optimism firmly established (I hope) here are a few things to look forward to in 2018…

The second Insects to Feed the World conference will be held in Wuhan, China, in May 

Ento Nation promise a magazine to accompany their excellent podcast

Julie Lesnik's book on the role of edible insects in human evolution will be available to buy from July 22nd - pre-order is available here

"Edible insects: the value chain", a 2-day symposium, will be held in Ede to celebrate 10yrs of insect research in the Netherlands


With thanks to:
EntoMove Project 
Bugsolutely ​​​​​​​
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"What's stopping your diet being more sustainable?"

10/28/2017

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This fortnight is the Cambridge Festival of Ideas - a series of events celebrating the arts, humanities and sciences.

One of these events was a panel discussion around the question "What's stopping your diet being more sustainable?", and I was one of the four panelists.

It's a challenging question. And my instinctive & defensive "Well, I do really like seafood.." wasn't going to do the trick. The 'you' in question isn't just me, it's (presumably) consumers in the global North. So I decided to approach it through the lens of edible insects: If we all 'know' insects area more sustainable protein source, what's stopping us from embracing them and eating less meat as a result? 

I'll summarize my talk at the end of this post, but firstly, here are the messages from my fellow panelists, each of whom approached it from their area of expertise..
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Emma Garnett spoke about meat consumption and how we live in a  world where we expect, and can afford to, eat meat on a  daily basis. The livestock industry continues to contribute to growing environmental degradation and carbon emissions at an alarming rate, but the all-pervasive meat industry makes it easy to ignore these facts. She concluded that to eat a more sustainable diet, we should eat more plant-based food.
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Chris Kaplonski spoke about sustainable wine and how some of the most 'sustainable' wines - in the sense that they do not use pesticides, have low energy consumption, and the growers consider their farming practices to be as 'natural' as possible - are very unconventional in taste. Many such wines 'do not taste like wine' as we know it. So, we need to be prepared to adjust our palates and our expectations in order to have a more sustainable diet.
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Jean Adams spoke from a health perspective. Healthy diets tend to be more sustainable, but the environment in which we live and shop for food makes it very difficult for most people to achieve such diets. The biggest barriers are: Affordability, accessibility and advertising. Often, the most affordable and easy-to-access foods are not the most sustainable - yet they do (as the photo above shows) get a lot of advertising space. And no matter how we might like to think we're immune to advertising, we're not - and importantly, neither are our children, who are exposed to approximately 23 adverts for unhealthy food items per day.
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I was introduced as 'the person who's going to persuade us all to eat insects' - so I hope my choice of slide (above) made it clear that's not my agenda at all!

I spoke about how sustainability is co-opted by a lot of advertising despite no one being entirely sure what it really means. Sustainable for how long? Somewhere between tomorrow and the end of the world, presumably, but where that line is drawn is a  matter of debate, or more commonly, convenience.

The above quote from Ben Reade is great because it highlights this as well as the now-ubiquitous claim that insects are 'more sustainable' than their animal-protein counterparts. There really isn't enough evidence to suggest this. And as the pictures above show - on the left, locally sourced bee larvae ceviche in homemade vinegarette, on the right, a muffin made with farmed mealworm flour - not all insect foods are alike in terms of their energy use and carbon footprint.

And surely a key part of sustainability is socio-economic sustainability for the producers of food?

This is a tricky one and can't be put into numbers as easily as greenhouse gas emissions, but I don't think that makes it any less important. Truly sustainable foods should also support fair livelihoods, social mobility and (I'm probably going too communist for some here, but I'm ok with that actually, especially after spending 12 months in West Africa) redistribution of wealth.

I also spoke about how cultural inertia and the constraints of a fairly restrictive buying environment make it hard for even the most motivated people to make dietary changes. When doing so, we may be further misled by the information available to us, since a food described by marketing campaigns as 'sustainable' may have any number of hidden unsustainable consequences.

We were lucky to have a brilliant audience with lots of great questions and thoughts for discussion, and we all agreed that next time we'd like a bit longer to discuss the issues being raised. What can we do as individuals to make our diets more sustainable? Eat more plants, be open to new tastes and textures in our food and drink, and think carefully about the implications of how we're spending our money. What can policy-makers do? Create a buying environment in which sustainable foods are more accessible and more affordable, whilst giving less (or no) advertising space to unhealthy, unsustainable options.

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